Black Pioneers of the American Revolution

Context: American Revolution

The American Revolution (1775–83) was a rebellion of 13 British colonies along the eastern seaboard of North America. By the end of the war, the colonies had won their independence from Britain and formed the United States of America. The costs were high: tens of thousands died during battle, while many more succumbed to disease. Moreover, the revolution pitted colonists against each other, some of whom remained loyal to the British government.

During the war, Loyalists formed “provincial” units that fought alongside British regulars. These units were subject to British military discipline and received the same pay, provisions, arms and ammunition as British regular units. Thousands of Loyalist non-combatants also looked to British forces for protection during the conflict, and in its aftermath. This included thousands of enslaved Blacks who escaped to British lines during the war.

Dunmore’s Proclamation (1775) and the Ethiopian Regiment

At the time, there were approximately 450,000 Black slaves in the Thirteen Colonies. Many Patriot and Loyalist colonists depended on slave labour to run their farms and businesses. In November 1775, the Earl of Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, declared martial law and offered freedom to any slaves (owned by rebels) who fought for the king’s cause.

Approximately 300 signed up to Dunmore’s “Ethiopian Regiment” in the first month alone. The majority were runaways from Virginia and Maryland. The regiment grew to about 800 men but suffered significant casualties because of smallpox and fever outbreaks. On 9 December 1775, the “Ethiopians” were involved in the battle at Great Bridge, Virginia, which the British lost. When Dunmore was forced to abandon Virginia in 1776, approximately 300 Black men, women and children came with him; of these, about 150 were soldiers. The Ethiopian Regiment disbanded soon after reaching Staten Island in August 1776.

Black Pioneers

In 1776 — the same year the Ethiopian Regiment disbanded — a new Black unit was formed. The Black Pioneers was the only Black unit on the provincial establishment and was created by British general Henry Clinton. In April 1776, an expedition under Clinton arrived in North Carolina; it was soon joined by white and Black Loyalists. Clinton enrolled 71 Blacks into a pioneer unit; most were from North and South Carolina, while a few were from Georgia.

Pioneers provided important engineering and construction support to the British army. This included building fortifications, maintaining buildings (e.g., barracks), removing obstacles, digging latrines, and helping supply the army with wood and other provisions. Pioneers weren’t armed, however, and didn’t engage in combat. They received the same pay as other British and other provincial soldiers.

While the commissioned officers of the unit were white, the noncommissioned officers were Black. Clinton instructed the officers to treat the men “with tenderness & humanity”; he also promised he would do his best to free them at the end of the war. The company’s strength was about 50-60 men throughout the war. Although new recruits joined the unit while it was stationed in Newport, New York City and Philadelphia, they replaced men lost to fatigue and disease.

Service 1776–83

The British campaign in the Carolinas ended in the summer of 1776 and Clinton’s force, including the Black Pioneers, sailed to New York to join the army under British commander-in-chief Sir William Howe. The Pioneers were part of the British forces that captured New York City (November 1776) and Newport, Rhode Island (December 1776). They were stationed in 1777–78 in Philadelphia, where they were responsible for clearing the city’s garbage.

In May 1778, Clinton became the new Commander-in-Chief of British forces in America. His orders were to abandon Philadelphia and concentrate British forces in New York. When Clinton moved British headquarters to New York City that summer, the Black Pioneers accompanied the rest of the army.

In December 1779, the Black Pioneers left New York City, part of a large British force destined for the south. In March, the British reached Charleston, South Carolina, and began laying siege to the city. It is likely that the Pioneers helped construct earthworks during the siege, which lasted from March to May 1780. Charleston fell to the British on 12 May 1780 and Clinton returned to New York City, taking part of the army with him — including most of the Black Pioneers. They remained there for the rest of the war but saw little service as a military unit. Instead, members of the Black Pioneers were assigned to high-ranking British officers as servants, cooks, and tradesmen.

Resettlement

When the war ended in 1783, Patriot slaveowners tried to reclaim their former slaves. Although Britain had lost the war, the new British commander-in-chief, Sir Guy Carleton, wanted to keep Henry Clinton’s promise of freedom. An estimated 3,000 Black men, women and children were evacuated from New York City between April and November 1783.

The Black Pioneers were among the last of the provincial units to leave New York City, sailing in November 1783 for Nova Scotia. Many settled in Brindley Town near Digby. As provincial soldiers, they were promised free grants of land. However, they received smaller allotments and fewer provisions than white provincial soldiers. Pioneer sergeant Thomas Peters became a spokesperson for frustrated Black Loyalists in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. He eventually helped recruit and organize the migration of 1,200 Black settlers from Nova Scotia to Freetown, Sierra Leone, in 1792.