The White Paper, 1969

Historical Context

By the 1960s, the impact of European settlement had had disastrous effects on Indigenous populations throughout Canada. Many communities had been drastically reduced by rampant disease, interruptions to trade and food routes, war and industrialization. All of this, combined with a series of oppressive policies such as the 1876 Indian Act and residential schools, had driven Indigenous peoples into poverty and strife and alarmingly increased death rates. (See also Social Conditions of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.)

Alongside a growing civil rights movement and the tremendous impact made by Indigenous soldiers in the First and Second World Wars, Canadians began to openly question the longstanding and institutional mistreatment and discrimination toward Indigenous peoples. (See also Indigenous Peoples in the World Wars; Indigenous Peoples and the First World War; Indigenous Peoples and the Second World War; Racial Segregation of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.) In 1964, anthropologist Harry B. Hawthorn was commissioned by the federal government to investigate some of the social conditions surrounding Indigenous peoples in Canada. Hawthorn’s report, A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies, labelled Indigenous peoples “citizens minus” — the most marginalized and disadvantaged population in Canada.

In 1968, in response to Hawthorn’s report, the Trudeau government began a series of consultations with Indigenous leaders on a new direction. At these meetings, Indigenous leaders expressed concerns to the government that treaty and special rights had not been recognized nor delivered, historical grievances had emerged or had never been addressed (especially in the case of land claims) and Indigenous peoples were neglected in Canadian policy making.

Contents of the White Paper, 1969

Presenting the White Paper in 1969, Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Jean Chrétien and Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau proposed to deal with Indigenous issues definitively. Based upon conceptions of equality and civil rights, the paper indicated that policies relating to First Nations were exclusionary and discriminatory. The paper argued that Indigenous peoples suffered discrimination and social challenges as a result of being separated from the rest of Canadian society. Additionally, it stated the “different status” for Indigenous peoples went against equality, stating “the treatment resulting from their different status has been often worse, sometimes equal and occasionally better than that accorded to their fellow citizens. What matters is that it has been different.” Trudeau and Chrétien’s White Paper proposed to eliminate “Indian” as a distinct legal status — therefore making First Nations “equal” to other Canadians.

They also proposed to dismantle the Department of Indian Affairs within five years, repeal the Indian Act, and eliminate all treaties between First Nations and Canada. The White Paper would convert reserve lands to private property owned by the band or its members and transfer all responsibility for services to provincial governments. It also proposed to appoint a commissioner to settle all land claims and provide funds for economic development. At the same time, Chrétien and Trudeau saw the White Paper as a way of eliminating the rising cost of administering Indian Affairs and treaty responsibilities.

Responses to the White Paper, 1969

The backlash to the White Paper, 1969 was monumental. Major opposition emerged from several organizations, including the National Indian Brotherhood (now the Assembly of First Nations) and its provincial chapters. Many felt the document overlooked concerns raised during consultations and appeared to be a final attempt to assimilate Indigenous peoples into the Canadian population. Leaders felt that instead of dealing with First Nations fairly and appropriately, the federal government was absolving itself of historical promises and responsibilities. Instead, provinces — with whom First Nations had no relationship — would be forced to deal with longstanding issues.

An important figure in this response was Harold Cardinal, a Cree leader of the Indian Association of Alberta (IAA). In 1970, Cardinal and the IAA rejected the White Paper by publishing the document Citizens Plus, which became known as the Red Paper. The Red Paper strongly defended treaty rights and Indigenous rights to lands, public services and self-determination. Indigenous leaders, including Cardinal as well as John Snow and Adam Solway, met with the Liberal Cabinet in Parliament to present the Red Paper.

Another major response to the White Paper came from within British Columbia. In November 1969, a conference hosted approximately 140 delegates representing around 200 First Nations and resulted in the development of the Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs. This organization rejected the White Paper, and it produced a document entitled “A Declaration of Indian Rights: The BC Indian Position Paper.” Also called the Brown Paper, this document asserted that Indigenous peoples continued to hold Aboriginal title to land. The Brown Paper aimed to protect the special and legal relationship between First Nations and the federal government. It also sought self-determination for Indigenous peoples.

Similar documents and policies were passed by organizations in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and in Eastern Canada. Public demonstrations and marches denounced the White Paper, demanding fair and appropriate action on Indigenous issues. This movement is often referred to as “Red Power.” (See also Indigenous Political Organization and Activism in Canada.)

Aftermath

In response to the backlash, Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau withdrew the White Paper in 1970. Indigenous activists and their allies continued to work on issues arising from this time period. In 1973, the Supreme Court decided on the case Calder et al. v. Attorney General of British Columbia, agreeing that Aboriginal title to land existed before European colonization of North America. The Constitution Act, 1982 included section 35, which recognized and affirmed Aboriginal and treaty rights within Canada. (See also Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.)

Legacy and Significance

The White Paper, 1969 galvanized Indigenous political organization and activism in the 1960s and early 1970s. The formation of many of these organizations continued throughout the following decades, and their successor organizations, like the Assembly of First Nations, continue to promote the rights of Indigenous peoples in Canada. Some Indigenous leaders believe that the spirit and intent of the White Paper, 1969 continues to this day. Since the White Paper, 1969, there have been numerous flashpoints between Indigenous leaders and the federal government, including Elijah Harper’s scuttling of the Meech Lake Accord, the Kanesatake Resistance and the Idle No More movement.