Council of Three Fires

Origins

Oral traditions shared by the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi indicate that these nations were once united prior to their arrival in the Great Lakes region. Upon reaching Bawating (present-day Sault Ste Marie), separate national identities coalesced and the Anishinaabeg split into three. The Potawatomi established their villages along the eastern and southern shores of Lake Michigan, eventually becoming agriculturalists. The Odawa remained in the Michilimackinac to Manitoulin Island region and the northern shore of Lake Michigan. The Ojibwe established themselves in Bawating, along the shores of Lake Superior. Of the three, the Ojibwe were the most numerous and utilized the largest territory. The Odawa likely had the second-largest population.

According to Anishinaabe Elder Edward Benton-Benai’s teachings, the Council emerged during the westward migration between 900 and 1,400 CE. A Potawatomi Elder, Shup-Shewana, determined that the Council emerged around 796 CE at Michilimackinac.

Organization

The Council of Three Fires was an alliance with highly dispersed authority. Importantly, the Three Fires maintained a common origin story, a common kinship based on history and ongoing intermarriage, as well as shared relationships through Clans that crossed villages and nations. The Ojibwe became the Older Brother, Keepers of the Faith and the Western Doorway. The Odawa became the Middle Brother, Keepers of the Trade and the Eastern Doorway. The Potawatomi became the Younger Brother and Keepers of the Sacred Fire. This brotherly notion of equality and family meant that each could be called upon to offer sustenance, shelter and support.

The Council considered issues that affected all of the nations — trade, warfare and alliances. Clan and village leaders, Elders, and Midewiwin leaders would gather at a chosen council site. Historically, the meetings occurred at locations now known as Michilimackinac, Sault Ste Marie (Bawating), Niagara Falls, Spirit Island, Manitoulin Island, Garden River and Thunder Mountain (Mount McKay). Michilimackinac, a key spiritual centre of the Anishinaabe world and a central location, became the common meeting site. The Mide were responsible for ensuring that the site was cleansed, thereby allowing participants to form clear and good minds. At the start of the Council, the host nation undertook a condolence ceremony, acknowledging people’s losses and hardships since the last meeting. This ceremony contributed to good minds. It was customary for the Ojibwe, being the Eldest Brother, to speak first. Agreements were recorded in wampum and occasionally on birchbark scrolls.

Military

During their migration to the Great Lakes, the Anishinaabeg of the Three Fires encountered hostility from the Iroquoians/Haudenosaunee along their route, first at Niagara and again at Detroit. At Bawating, the Anishinaabeg vied for land with the Odugaumeeg (Fox/Meskwaki Nation) and the Aboinug (Dakota).

The Council participated in driving the Haudenosaunee from Southern Ontario in the 17th century. By 1701, according to former captive John Tanner, the Council of Three Fires was the predominant military and diplomatic presence throughout the Great Lakes. By the mid-1700s, the Council was a significant member in the French Alliance system, with its warriors participating in the various colonial wars with the British and their seaboard colonies until around 1760–63 (see also Indigenous-French Relations).

Members of the Council also participated in Pontiac’s War in 1763, while also fighting the Illinois Confederacy (see also Obwandiyag (Pontiac)). The dispersed authority of the Three Fires is evident when some Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi communities refused to join the conflict or left the alliance during the conflict. Eventually, the Three Fires allied with the British in 1764 under the Treaty of Niagara and fought against the United States from 1775 to 1814. Between 1789 and 1795, the warriors of the Three Fires and allied nations, as part of the Great Lakes Confederacy, fought against successive American attempts to conquer the Upper Lakes-Ohio region. After a war with the Sauk in 1801, the Three Fires joined with Tecumseh in a final effort to keep the United States from claiming the Ohio-Great Lakes region in the War of 1812. Their defeat at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, followed by peace between the British and Americans in 1814, led to the end of the Council’s dominance that had lasted for almost 200 years.

Following the War of 1812, American Indian removal policies and treaties with British-Canada and the United States vastly reduced the Three Fires territory. The Council of Three Fires continued to function, as seen during the 1825 negotiations at Prairie du Chien when Odawa leader Chaboner (also known as Gambler, Chambly or Chambler) referred to the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi as a single council fire. Additionally, during the 1821 and 1833 Treaties of Chicago, the Elder Brother (Ojibwe) spoke first, followed by the Odawa and Potawatomi. The 1833 treaty also referred to them as “the United Nations of Chippewas, Ottawa, and Potawatomie Indians.”

Under the removal policies of 19th century America, many Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi were removed to Kansas and Oklahoma. Odawa and Potawatomi fled to British-Canada seeking refuge among their Elder Brothers (Ojibwe) to avoid removal. Today, the Potawatomi largely reside in Kansas and Oklahoma. The Odawa nation remains present in Michigan and Ontario, while four bands were removed to Oklahoma. Despite facing the threat of removal, the Ojibwe managed to remain in parts of Michigan. The Ojibwe also continue to maintain a presence in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Minnesota and Wisconsin.

Today

In the 1980s, a revitalization movement brought the Council of Three Fires to the forefront as a religious-spiritual and political organization. Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi communities hold annual Three Fires powwows where they discuss traditional teachings, politics, treaties and environmental concerns. The Anishinabek Nation (formerly the Union of Ontario Indians) traces its origins to the Council of Three Fires. Additionally, Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi businesses, such as Waséyabek and The Three Fires Group, claim to incorporate values expressed by the Council of Three Fires.